Works Cited and Discography

Total word count: 1,590 words

Works Cited (websites):

[1] "Hi'ikua." Hi'ikua - Home. 2011. Web. 17 Mar. 2013. www.hiikua.com.

[2] "National Geographic Music (National Geographic)." Mustapha Tettey Addy. National Geographic  Music, 2012. Web. 17 Mar. 2013 

<http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/artist/content.artist/mustapha_tettey_addy_26548/en_US>.

Works Cited (music):

Mustapha Tettey Addy + Obonu Drummers. "Waka." The Royal Drummers of 

        Ghana. Weltwunder Records, n.d. 2010. CD.

Hi'ikua. "Ku Mai Ka Hali'a." Aia I Hi'ialo. Kanemakua Records, n.d. 2011. CD.

Conclusion

        Hawaii and Ghana are thousands of miles apart and have very disconnected and distinct musical cultures, yet there still exist music links that span this cultural difference. Traditional music of both Hawaii and Ghana have been reproduced or imitated recently by both Mustapha Tettey Addy and Hi’ikua, and although there are many differences between their respective pieces “Waka” and “Ku Mai Ka Hali’a”, there are clear similarities in their structure in their similar use of vocal imitation, and in their rhythmic form by their use of an ostinato pattern in a single instrument to emphasize the quadruple meter. As it turns out, music truly is a common language that can span thousands of miles and share similarities despite very separate musical cultures. 

Musical Link 2: Heavily emphasized meter, dictated by a single instrument

        The meter in both “Ku Mai Ka Hali’a” and “Waka” is very prominent and heavily emphasized, particularly by a single instrument’s ostinato pattern. Both pieces remain in a quadruple meter; if the music was written down, it would most likely be written as a 4/4 time signature in both works. Although the vocal melodies also support a quadruple meter feel, it is largely the ostinato patterns in the instruments of both pieces that determine and sustain the meter with large emphasis on beat. In the Hawaiian mele, the ukulele plays an ostinato pattern of eighth notes on beats 2 and 4 (the “weak” beats), on the same chord, to emphasize the beat. One bar of that pattern (disregarding pitches, only rhythm is accurately portrayed) is shown here:

        This melodic rhythm remains steady throughout the song, instilling the quadruple meter feel. In “Waka”, the many percussion instruments and their polyrhythms can possible muddle the meter, but there is one instrument that can be relied on to keep the true quadruple meter going, and this is the bell. The bell used has a dry and hollow sound, and only plays on one pitch, possibly a cowbell or something similar. Through most of “Waka”, the bell plays the following rhythm on the same pitch. Again, only one bar of the motif is shown, and the pitch is not necessarily accurate. 

        In the Hawaiian piece and African piece, the ukulele and bell respectively keep an ostinato pattern throughout that emphasizes the quadruple meter. In both pieces, this has the effect of anchoring the rhythms and giving the pieces a steady and continuous feel, which is almost dance-like in both pieces. 

Musical Link 1: Vocal imitation between male soloist and male chorus

        “Waka” and “Ku Mai Ka Kali’a” may be from separate musical cultures, continents, languages, and styles; however, the structure of both pieces center around a basic imitative pattern. In the Hawaiian mele, the vocal structure is very simple – a male soloist sings a full line, and as he hits the last pitch the chorus (here, the other two male vocalists) repeats the same line, using the same rhythms and pitches as the first presentation of the line save for a split (of an octave, achieved through use of falsetto) at the end of each line, which creates a slightly thicker texture. Each of the four lines which are repeated in this manner are separated by instrumental break and the refrain (with the exception of the first two lines, which are not separated by the refrain). The refrain here is sung by all three vocalists, making it slightly louder, and the rhythm differs slightly from the non-refrain lines. The lyrics of the refrain are stated below:

“Liko ka pua kukui, i ka ula hiwahiwa, kahi e moe ai ke kumupa’a, he aloha, he aloha e”

        If each line was considered a new “theme” and the refrain was labeled “R”, the structure of the piece would appear A-B-R-C-R-D-R-R.

        “Waka” uses this same structure of imitation between a male soloist and male chorus. Both imitation and call-and-response techniques are very common in sub-Saharan African music, and it is exactly these techniques that make up the structure of “Waka”. First, the soloist introduces a long phrase, which is chant-like but also has definite rhythm and pitch. As soon as he finishes, a large male chorus repeats it with very little to no variation. This is used throughout the piece, much like the Hawaiian mele. However, unlike the mele, the same phrase is repeated back and forth many times before moving to the next phrase (anywhere from two to six times), and there is no “refrain” that is returned to.  Towards the end of the piece (beginning at 5:32 and at 6:27 in the provided recording), this imitation gives way to an overlapping call and response, but this remains between the same soloist and chorus.

        The same imitation structural technique used in both the Hawaiian piece and African piece give similar affects, as if there is a leader and a group of followers singing/chanting together. Easy to follow and catch on to, this technique also allows some freedom for variation, improvisation, or creation of new lyrics or rhythms for the soloist. Because it is they who “introduce” each phrase, the chorus will simply follow and repeat whatever they produce. This structure is a salient link between these two pieces and cultures. 

Major Differences

        The differences between this Hawaiian mele “Ku Mai Ka Hali’a” and African piece “Waka” are nearly endless, largely due to their very different musical cultures. Singing styles is one major difference – in “Waka”, a chant-singing style is used, which still has pitch but is spoken and chanted more so than sung. It also uses some non-word noises, such as a few grunts and shouts. In the mele, all parts are definitely sung versus chanted, and there is a large use of falsetto. The Hawaiian piece also uses much more wobbly vibrato, where the African piece uses almost none at all. The medium of each piece is another obvious difference. Although both pieces have a male soloist and male chorus, the chorus of the African piece is much larger than the 2-person chorus of the Hawaiian. Not only this, but the instrumental accompaniment is also very different – a ukulele and slap string guitar are used as accompaniment in “Ku Mai Ka Hali’a”, but an assortment of idiophones and membranophones are used in “Waka”. This includes an assortment of bells, shakers, and membranophone drums played with the hands. Harmonies are richer in the Hawaiian piece due to the accompaniment which plays pitched chords, versus the African piece’s accompaniment which cannot create chords and add that same richness of texture. There are many differences between Sub-Saharan African and Hawaiian mele music, but despite these differences, there are still connections between the musical cultures, as I will discuss next. 

Background About the Pieces

       “Ku Mai Ka Kali’a” is a Hawaiian mele, from the album Aia I Hi’I Alo. The group that both composed and performed the piece is called Hi’ikua, an ensemble of three Hawaiian musicians: Kalehua Krug, Kamuela Kimokeo, and Blake Leoiki-Haili (1). The name of the ensemble translates to English as “to carry on one’s back”, referring to the group’s accepted responsibility of carrying the history and tradition of their ancestors and sharing this in their music. “Ku Mai Ka Kali’a” was composed by Kalehua Krug, is in Hawaiian language, and is performed by three male vocalists, a slack string guitar, and a ukulele. The topic of the song is the birth of a new child who will continue the tradition of the Hawaiian people (1). Although lyrics are available for this piece, a score is not.

       “Waka” is from the album The Royal Drums of Ghana by Mustapha Tettey Addy and his Obonu Drummers. This Sub-Saharan African piece is a traditional ritualistic piece from a tribe in Ghana. To create this album, Addy traveled around tribes in Ghana to learn their music, and then gained exclusive permission from tribal leaders to perform and record it (2). In this way, “Waka” as performed in this recording is the first and only way that this piece has ever been heard outside of its ritual use. It is performed by a male solo vocalist and male chorus, along with a large assortment of drums and percussion. Addy did not compose this piece; rather, it is his interpretation and performance of the song that he learned from the tribe (2). Tribal music is passed on orally and by example, so there is no written interpretation of this piece, let alone a score. 

Two Musical Cultures, Two Pieces

Hawaiian music and Sub-Saharan African music come from very different musical cultures – not only do they originate from opposite sides of the world and separate continents, but they use very different musical techniques, styles, purposes and instruments as well. Hawaii, part of the oceanic musical culture, has remained a relatively unique and isolated musical scene. Although the state is very small and technically a part of the United States, it is influenced by North American, Asian, and Oceanic cultures, and has developed a distinct musical culture. Traditional Sub-Saharan African music is very diverse because of the many tribes and languages, but has also grown into a distinct musical culture of its own. The two music pieces being investigated in this musical links project will be “Ku Mai Ka Kali’a”, by Hi’ikua, and “Waka”, by Mustapha Tettey Addy. Although both pieces were composed and recorded relatively recently (“Ku Mai Ka Kali’a” was released in 2011, “Waka” in 2010) by composers that are still alive today, both artists explore and emulate traditional music of their musical culture (1, 2).